O*NET captures the "numerous small decisions" that separate the most effective organizations from their competitors.
O*NET represents only a first step in figuring out the important tasks for a given job. O*NET cannot capture those sorts of unique task requirements-the "numerous small decisions" that separate the most effective organizations from their competitors.
Numerous Small Decisions: People making many small decisions every day that are invisible to competitors.
Kevin works for Outrageous Burger, a nationwide fast-food chain, but his job does not involve flipping patties or making fries. Instead, he is sitting before a computer screen in the company's corporate offices, writing something. "Place the two halves of the bun on the counter," one line reads, "then add enough shredded lettuce to cover the bottom bun to a depth of not more than 0.25 inches." In all likelihood, Kevin is writing a
- series of directions for a training script.
- list of core job tasks for a detailed job analysis.
- critique of an employee's mishandling of job tasks.
- report for an industry publication regarding job tasks.
- detailed analysis of a day in the life of a fast-food worker.
To determine training objectives for production workers, Toyota uses a highly detailed job analysis process that includes listing of core job tasks. Each of these tasks can be broken down further into more detailed steps, and in turn, the specific behaviors involved in each step become the focus of the training. Although this level of detail might seem like an awful lot of analysis for what one might imagine to be a relatively straightforward job, Toyota competes on the basis of quality and cost. The same is True for a fast-food chain such as Outrageous Burger.
Job Analysis: A process by which an organization determines requirements of specific jobs.
Amanda and her team are about to begin performing a job analysis for the position of structural engineer at their firm. The very first thing they should do is
- examine highly rated activities, which can then be incorporated into training programs as learning objectives.
- consult with a technical university to determine the requirements for obtaining a degree in structural engineering.
- generate a list of activities involved with the job, using data collected through observations, surveys, and interviews.
- look for activities that can become a part of performance evaluation systems as measures to evaluate task performance.
- arrange for a group of subject matter experts to evaluate the job in terms of the importance and frequency of the activities involved.
Although there are many different ways to conduct a job analysis, most boil down to three steps. First, a list of the activities involved in a job is generated. This list generally results from data from several sources, including observations, surveys, and interviews of employees. Second, each activity on this list is rated by "subject matter experts," according to things like the importance and frequency of the activity. Subject matter experts generally have experience performing the job or managing the job and therefore are in a position to judge the importance of specific activities to the organization. Third, the activities that are rated highly in terms of their importance and frequency are retained and used to define task performance. Those retained behaviors then find their way into training programs as learning objectives and into performance evaluation systems as measures to evaluate task performance.
Job Analysis: A process by which an organization determines requirements of specific jobs.
Felicia is an experienced lab technician, but at the moment she is not working in the lab. She is reviewing a list of activities associated with her job and rating them in terms of their importance. Most likely, Felicia is a
- job seeker considering the best qualities she could bring to her new job.
- soon-to-be retiree preparing to train the person who will replace her.
- boss completing a job performance evaluation of her subordinates.
- subject matter expert involved in a job analysis.
- researcher conducting an industrywide study.
A job analysis usually begins with drawing up a list of the activities involved in. Then, each activity on this list is rated by subject matter experts such as Felicia-people who generally have experience with the job and therefore are in a position to judge-as to its importance and frequency. Those that are rated highly by subject matter experts are retained and used to define task performance. Those retained behaviors then find their way into training programs as learning objectives and into performance evaluation systems as measures to evaluate task performance.
Job Analysis: A process by which an organization determines requirements of specific jobs.
The O*NET is useful for many things, but it does not provide
- a resource for organizations that find it impractical to use job analysis.
- the task requirements unique to a particular organization.
- the knowledge and skills required to perform a task.
- the characteristics of most jobs in terms of tasks.
- the behaviors associated with a given job.
Many organizations ask their employees to perform tasks that their competitors do not, so their workforce performs in a unique and valuable way. O*NET cannot capture those sorts of unique task requirements that separate the most effective organizations from their competitors.
Task Interdependence: The degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team.
If organizations find it impractical to use job analysis to identify the set of behaviors needed to define task performance, they can use
- a job performance ranking.
- 360-degree feedback.
- management by objectives.
- behaviorally anchored rating scales.
- the Occupational Information Network.
If organizations find it impractical to use job analysis to identify the set of behaviors needed to define task performance, they can turn to a database the government has created to help with that important activity. The Occupational Information Network (or O*NET) is an online database that includes, among other things, the characteristics of most jobs in terms of tasks, behaviors, and the required knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Occupational Information Network (O*NET): An online database containing job tasks, behaviors, required knowledge, skills, and abilities.
The process by which an organization determines the requirements associated with a specific job is referred to as a
- job analysis.
- forced ranking.
- job evaluation.
- ranking analysis.
- forced analysis.
A job analysis is a process by which an organization determines the requirements associated with a specific job.
Tamora has had a rough year. Thanks to a quick temper, she got into an altercation that landed her in jail, and she subsequently lost her job on an auto-parts assembly line. Now she is out of jail and trying to make a new start. The factory will take her back, but only as an unskilled laborer with a chance to work her way back to her old job. On the other hand, an Internet retailer needs customer service personnel, and in spite of her record with the law, they are willing to consider Tamora's application because she scored high on a battery of tests. Given the fact that both jobs offer about the same level of pay and benefits, the best option for Tamora is to
- realize that both jobs represent dying industries and continue looking for a position that has more of a future.
- give the Internet retail job a try because it does not involve physical labor and therefore will be better for her as she ages.
- take the Internet retail job because it is part of a growing industry, but realize that she needs to work on her anger issues.
- go back to the factory because she already has contacts there and stands a good chance of quickly working her way into her old job.
- recognize the growth potential in the industrial sector and that she should go back to the factory with the knowledge that she has a long-term future there.
Heavy industry, as exemplified by the job at the auto-parts factory, is a diminishing sector of the U.S. economy, whereas service jobs-particularly with Internet-based retailers such as Amazon-are on the rise. However, service work employers place a greater premium on high levels of citizenship behavior and low levels of counterproductive behavior; hence the need for Tamora to work on her anger issues.
Needs: Groupings or clusters of outcomes viewed as having critical psychological or physiological consequences.
Among the jobs that represent the bulk of the growth in the service industries is that of
- maintenance technician.
- factory worker.
- retail salesperson.
- skilled laborer.
- IT specialist.
Retail salespersons, customer service representatives, and food service workers represent the bulk of the service job growth in the United States.
As he labors at his keyboard, Antonio is discovering one negative consequence of the rise in jobs that involve knowledge work. This negative consequence is most likely the fact that
- employers will expect employees to account for their activities on a minute-by-minute basis.
- employers are more likely to demand that employees be at work eight hours a day, five days a week.
- employers may have unrealistic expectations about the speed at which employees can complete tasks.
- employees may have unrealistic expectations about the amount of money they can earn in particular jobs.
- employees are more likely to expect employers to give them extra days of paid vacation, as well as sick leave.
The tools used to do knowledge work change quickly, with software, databases, and computer systems updated more frequently than ever. As those tools become more powerful, the expectations for completing knowledge work become more ambitious. After all, shouldn't reports and presentations be more comprehensive and finished more quickly when every book used to create them is available online 24/7 rather than at some library? In fact, as many have recently noted, expectations regarding knowledge work can become overwhelming for employees, and as a consequence, new and innovative ways of performing this type of work may be necessary.
Knowledge Work: Jobs that primarily involve cognitive activity versus physical activity.
Knowledge work can best be defined as jobs that primarily
- require a graduate-level degree.
- are occupied by Ivy League graduates.
- concern scientific or technical activities.
- demand upper-level problem-solving skills.
- involve cognitive activity as opposed to physical activity.
Knowledge work refers to jobs that primarily involve cognitive, or mental, activity versus physical activity.
Knowledge Work: Jobs that primarily involve cognitive activity versus physical activity.
Vince just took an aptitude test and discovered that he is well-suited to a profession that involves working with his mind rather than his hands. This is partly due to his personality, since knowledge work-in contrast to factory work and other industrial jobs-tends to be ________ from day to day.
- lacking in structure, yet the same
- more structured and less likely to change
- less structured and more likely to change
- the same in terms of structure and changes
- more complicated, more structured, and more likely to change
In addition to being more cognitive, knowledge work tends to be more fluid and dynamic in nature.
Knowledge Work: Jobs that primarily involve cognitive activity versus physical activity.
Patrick's father worked in a steel mill all his life, but Patrick, despite having great respect for his dad, never considered this career path. Instead, practically from the time he could walk, he has been taking apart computers and putting them back together, and today he designs computer hardware. The story of Patrick and his father is an illustration of a trend over the past few decades, which can best be described by saying that there has been a(n)
- tendency to overemphasize knowledge work as opposed to industrial jobs.
- shift away from industrial jobs and toward knowledge work.
- abundance of overqualified applicants in service industries.
- shortage of trained personnel in jobs across the spectrum.
- rejection of parents' jobs and professions.
For much of the twentieth century, the U.S. economy was industrial in nature, and the productivity of the employees who labored in plants and factories was of great concern. However, by the early 1990s, the majority of new jobs required employees to engage in cognitive work, applying theoretical and analytical knowledge acquired through education and continuous learning. Statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor confirm that this type of work, also called knowledge work, is becoming more prevalent than jobs involving physical activity.
Historically, research on organizational behavior has focused on the ________ aspects of job performance.
- educational
- political
- interpersonal
- physical
- theoretical
Historically speaking, research on organizational behavior has focused on the physical aspects of job performance.
Job Performance: Employee behaviors that contribute either positively or negatively to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
As the manager of the local Express Package Services, a retail shipping facility, DeAnna is evaluating the employees who work at the counter. She looks at such factors as positive or negative customer comments about each employee, their sales relative to those of their coworkers, the amount of time they spend with each customer, and so forth. DeAnna is evaluating each of these employees in terms of their
- task performance.
- job performance.
- citizenship behavior.
- counterproductive behavior.
- courtesy.
Job performance is formally defined as the value of the set of employee behaviors that contribute, either positively or negatively, to organizational goal accomplishment. This includes behaviors that are within the control of employees, but it places a boundary on which behaviors are (and are not) relevant to job performance.
Job Performance: Employee behaviors that contribute either positively or negatively to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
Selena sells luxury cars for a living, but in recent months her sales have slumped. This is partly due to an economic recession, which has led to a downturn in the market. In addition, Selena has been distracted by the fact that her mother has been in the hospital. As a result of her decline in sales, Selena recently received a bad job performance rating. Why would she have grounds to dispute this rating?
- Her mother's illness is a factor beyond her control.
- Results do not tell her how to reverse a "bad year."
- The economic downturn is a factor beyond her control.
- Her manager's focus on the bottom line has led to social undermining.
- She is contributing to the organization in ways that go beyond the bottom line.
As sensible as it might seem to use results as the primary indicator of job performance, it creates potential problems. Results are often influenced by factors that are beyond the employees' control-product quality, competition, equipment, technology, budget constraints, coworkers, and supervisors, just to name a few. While her mother's illness is also a factor beyond Selena's control, this is an outside matter not directly related to her work at the luxury car dealership.
Job Performance: Employee behaviors that contribute either positively or negatively to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
Donnell is a computer programmer whose job performance rating notes the fact that he often goes out to the parking lot and sits in his car during lunch hour. He is otherwise sociable and never late coming back from lunch; therefore, this is not an appropriate item to include on his job performance rating because it
- is not a behavior relevant to the accomplishment of organizational goals.
- demonstrates an undue focus on interpersonal citizenship behavior.
- relates to his task performance rather than his job performance.
- implies that he is doing something wrong by sitting in his car.
- concerns citizenship behavior rather than job performance.
The definition of job performance includes behaviors that are within the control of employees, but it places a boundary on which behaviors are (and are not) relevant to job performance. Since Donnell's lunchtime habits do not interfere with his work, it is not a relevant issue.
Evaluating an employee's performance based on results alone provides the best picture of which employees are worth more to an organization.
Employees contribute to their organization in ways that go beyond bottom-line results; therefore, evaluating an employee's performance based on results alone might give an inaccurate picture of which employees are worth more to the organization.
When job performance evaluation time rolls around, Michael always comes out ahead of his coworkers, but his success comes at a price. He has been known to give his supervisors negative (and sometimes unTrue) information about his coworkers, and when it looks as though someone else may be about to get a better job performance evaluation, bad things tend to happen to that person, such as lost paperwork and missed meetings due to deleted calendar appointments. In terms of organizational behavior and the principles of job performance evaluations, it is clear that
- the organization has failed to create a sense of group cohesion and an attitude of organizational citizenship.
- unethical behavior on the part of his supervisors has led Michael to seek advancement by any means possible.
- Michael is showing the kind of resourcefulness that rightly has earned him high job performance ratings in the past.
- other employees have failed to understand, as Michael clearly has, that personal success equates with organizational success.
- his supervisors' emphasis on results has created an environment in which an employee might use unethical behavior to get ahead.
There is evidence that managers' focus on bottom-line results can create a bottom-line mentality among employees, which in turn, results in social undermining-sabotaging coworkers' reputations or trying to make them look bad. Similarly, the quest to enhance the bottom line may lead employees to violate policies and regulations, which in turn, may result in staggering legal fees, fines, and lost customers.
Cheryl continually boosts morale at the sales office of Monroe Consumer Products, and she has helped a number of her colleagues through difficult situations. Nevertheless, she received a bad job performance rating due to the fact that her sales for the quarter were down. This job performance rating is
- wrong; Cheryl is contributing to the organization in ways that go beyond the bottom line.
- wrong; an emphasis on results such as sales would encourage Cheryl to behave unethically.
- right; even if Cheryl can claim problems that were beyond her control, it is no one's concern but her own.
- right; if Cheryl is rewarded with a good job performance rating, it will encourage other employees to slack off.
- right; in spite of her positive qualities, Cheryl has failed to produce, and results are what really matter in the end.
Employees contribute to their organization in ways that go beyond bottom-line results, and so evaluating an employee's performance based on results alone might give you an inaccurate picture of which employees are worth more to the organization.
Adaptive task performance involves employee responses to task demands that are novel, unusual, or, at the very least, unpredictable.
Adaptive task performance involves employee responses to task demands that are novel, unusual, or, at the very least, unpredictable.
Adaptive Task Performance: Thoughtful responses by an employee to unique or unusual task demands.
Employees' performance of routine task behaviors is becoming increasingly important as globalization, technological, advances, and knowledge-based work increase the pace of change in the workplace.
Adaptive behaviors are becoming increasingly important as globalization, technological advances, and knowledge-based work increase the pace of change in the workplace.
Creative task performance is the degree to which individuals develop ideas or physical outcomes that are both novel and useful.
Creative task performance is the degree to which individuals develop ideas or physical outcomes that are both novel and useful.
Creative Task Performance: The degree to which individuals develop ideas or physical outcomes that are both novel and useful.